Except from "A Brief History of the Great War 1914-1917", from a timeline in which the Central Powers (Germany chiefly) emerged victorious despite suffering a massive defeat at Jutland. Some background: Germany focuses on the East and adopts a defensive posture against France. No invasion of Belgium or France means that British involvement in the war does not involve a large British Army commitment to the western Front. Britain focuses on naval war, colonial war, and blockade. Russia collapses first, followed by France, whose troops mutiny after two years of fruitless and bloody attempts to break German defenses. Italy remains neutral as does the USA, who hosts the peace treaty. Discuss:
...However, unlike France and Russia, Britain was in a very strong position and did not depend on German mercies. With her entire military strength focused outside of Europe and a Royal Navy that dominated the sea, she had quickly seized all of Germany’s colonies in Africa while her Japanese ally had done the same in China and the Pacific. Britain and her Arab nationalist clients had wrested all of Arabia from Ottoman control. Other than slight damage from zeppelin airship and naval coastal raids, Britain was untouched by war and, with the assistance of the Imperial Dominions, had raised a large and well-equipped army that was largely intact and still expanding.
The most important factor in ending the war occurred in the North Sea, when Britain won an overwhelming victory over the German High Seas Fleet at Jutland (Skaagerak) in June 1916. This virtually eliminated the German Navy as a serious threat to British naval dominance. Against the loss of one battleship, three battlecruisers, two obsolete armored cruisers, and fewer than 6000 men, an overwhelming force of the Royal Navy under Lord Jellicoe succeeded in trapping and eliminating a large element of the German Navy – sinking or mortally crippling eight dreadnought battleships, four pre-dreadnoughts, and every German battlecruiser in the battle, as well as numerous other light units. Only dwindling British ammunition reserves and poor visibility allowed the remnants of the routed German fleet to escape. Over 29,000 German officers and men lost their lives in the disaster, including Admirals Scheer and Hipper. Another 11,550 men were rescued from the sea or from surrendered German capital ships into British captivity. In the words of First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, “Admiral Jellicoe is the one man who could have won or lost this war in a single day…and in the tradition of Nelson he has won it!”
While Churchill and a few others in the war cabinet argued that the Jutland victory should encourage Britain to continue the war until complete victory was secured, the Asquith government demurred. Britain had, by force of arms, eliminated Germany’s overseas empire and destroyed the only means Germany might have to threaten Britain with direct invasion. In Germany, the Reichstag, Kaiser Wilhelm, and the generally hawkish German press were in a state of shocked apoplexy. In a single battle Britain virtually destroyed the fleet that Tirpitz and Wilhelm II had lovingly created over the preceding decade, with billions of Reichsmarks somewhat grudgingly provided by the Reichstag now resting in Davy Jones’ locker. In a manner surprisingly equivalent to the thinking of Asquith and his advisors in Britain, Germany’s leaders realized that the naval defeat at Jutland did not change the balance of power in Europe, where Germany was victorious in the east and that Britain might accept this now that Germany was no longer a threat to its global oceanic empire. Thus, both Britain and Germany came to see there might be basis to negotiate peace without total victory.
Although France and Russia had already agreed to separate agreements with Germany in early 1917, the United States offered to mediate a British-German peace treaty that would also provide comprehensive settlement among all combatants and establish the structure for a permanent peace in Europe and elsewhere. Negotiations began on July 5, 1917 in Washington DC. Initially only Germany, France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Japan attended. Russia, still in the throes of civil war, did not send a representative. Serbia, which was specifically mentioned in the treaty preamble as the power most responsible for the Great War, no longer existed as an independent nation. In late 1917, representatives from several newly independent countries carved out of the former Russian Empire were also invited by US President Wilson to sit in. These included the Grand Duchy of Poland, the Kingdoms of Belorussia and Ukraine, and the Federated Baltic Kingdoms. Finland, which had achieved independence without German assistance, attended to ensure its new nationhood was internationally recognized.
Although the Washington Treaty as finally signed in August 6, 1918 did not live up to Woodrow Wilson’s lofty and ultimately unrealistic goal to serve as the springboard for a permanent “League of Nations” it proved to be an enduring document that:
1.Formally ended the European war and restored normal diplomatic relations throughout Europe
2.Provided formal recognition of the previous Russo-German and Franco-German treaties and armistices,
3.Provided international recognition for the new nations of central and eastern Europe and established several border adjustments
4.Provided international recognition for Finland
5.Recognized the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Serbia
6.Recognized the independence of Iraq, Syria, Jordan, and Palestine under British protection
7.Ended the war between Britain and Germany on terms that were acceptable, if not ideal, to both parties.
Recognizing that the Anglo-German naval arms race was a prime cause of the Great War, the Washington Treaty also included a separate naval reduction codicil between Britain and Germany that formally limited the size of any future German navy to one-half of the tonnage of the British navy, with specific limitations on the actual numbers of some capital ship classes for both powers.
There were, however, a number of unresolved issues or snubs that caused some participants not to sign the treaty and created the stage for future regional conflicts as well as one major war over the following four decades.
The Washington Treaty did not address the Balkans, other than to affirm Austro-Hungarian gains and legitimize the extinction of Serbia as an independent nation. As a result, nationalist movements continued to thrive in and outside of Austria-Hungary. The Dual Monarchy also found itself embroiled in border conflicts with the new German-sponsored nations of Poland and Ukraine. In addition, numerous non-signatories such as Italy and Romania had their own claims and border disputes against Austria and Hungary that the treaty did not address. This, together with increasing instability in the empire, led in 1926 to the negotiated breakup of the Dual Monarchy, with Austria eventually joining the federal structure of the German Empire as the Kingdom of Austria. The Kingdom of Hungary, with German assistance, resorted to sometimes draconian measures as it sought to maintain its control over restive Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, south Slavs, Croats, Romanians, and others within its expanded borders.
The Ottoman Empire understandably chafed at being asked to sign a document that recognized the loss of its Arabian territories. However, since the Ottoman government saw little chance of retaining these territories in the foreseeable future, it eventually signed the treaty to restore valuable economic support from Britain and France. Dissatisfaction with this treaty was so high in Turkey, however, that it eventually led to the overthrow of Sultan Mehmed IV by a military coup. Later, Mehmed was returned to the throne as a figurehead monarch under a dictatorship headed by Mustafa Kemal.
Japan did not sign the treaty, seeing the requirement to negotiate with Britain and Germany regarding the final status of its conquests in the Pacific as yet another attempt by western powers to deprive it of its well-earned conquests in war. Japan refused to negotiate with either Germany or Britain regarding this matter. This in turn antagonized the United States, which saw the Japanese Pacific conquests as a threat to its own possessions in the western Pacific, particularly the Philippines and Guam. The Americans specifically demanded that German Micronesian and Pacific islands be demilitarized or placed under international control, neither of which the Japanese would agree to. Finally, the US sought to have the Anglo-German naval reduction codicil expanded to include at least the United States and Japan, with Japan limited to the same ratio vis-à-vis the US as the German-British ratio. This was unacceptable to both Japan and Britain. As a result, despite hosting the peace conference, the US also refused to sign the Washington Treaty, and the 1931-32 Pacific War was an inevitable result.
...However, unlike France and Russia, Britain was in a very strong position and did not depend on German mercies. With her entire military strength focused outside of Europe and a Royal Navy that dominated the sea, she had quickly seized all of Germany’s colonies in Africa while her Japanese ally had done the same in China and the Pacific. Britain and her Arab nationalist clients had wrested all of Arabia from Ottoman control. Other than slight damage from zeppelin airship and naval coastal raids, Britain was untouched by war and, with the assistance of the Imperial Dominions, had raised a large and well-equipped army that was largely intact and still expanding.
The most important factor in ending the war occurred in the North Sea, when Britain won an overwhelming victory over the German High Seas Fleet at Jutland (Skaagerak) in June 1916. This virtually eliminated the German Navy as a serious threat to British naval dominance. Against the loss of one battleship, three battlecruisers, two obsolete armored cruisers, and fewer than 6000 men, an overwhelming force of the Royal Navy under Lord Jellicoe succeeded in trapping and eliminating a large element of the German Navy – sinking or mortally crippling eight dreadnought battleships, four pre-dreadnoughts, and every German battlecruiser in the battle, as well as numerous other light units. Only dwindling British ammunition reserves and poor visibility allowed the remnants of the routed German fleet to escape. Over 29,000 German officers and men lost their lives in the disaster, including Admirals Scheer and Hipper. Another 11,550 men were rescued from the sea or from surrendered German capital ships into British captivity. In the words of First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, “Admiral Jellicoe is the one man who could have won or lost this war in a single day…and in the tradition of Nelson he has won it!”
While Churchill and a few others in the war cabinet argued that the Jutland victory should encourage Britain to continue the war until complete victory was secured, the Asquith government demurred. Britain had, by force of arms, eliminated Germany’s overseas empire and destroyed the only means Germany might have to threaten Britain with direct invasion. In Germany, the Reichstag, Kaiser Wilhelm, and the generally hawkish German press were in a state of shocked apoplexy. In a single battle Britain virtually destroyed the fleet that Tirpitz and Wilhelm II had lovingly created over the preceding decade, with billions of Reichsmarks somewhat grudgingly provided by the Reichstag now resting in Davy Jones’ locker. In a manner surprisingly equivalent to the thinking of Asquith and his advisors in Britain, Germany’s leaders realized that the naval defeat at Jutland did not change the balance of power in Europe, where Germany was victorious in the east and that Britain might accept this now that Germany was no longer a threat to its global oceanic empire. Thus, both Britain and Germany came to see there might be basis to negotiate peace without total victory.
Although France and Russia had already agreed to separate agreements with Germany in early 1917, the United States offered to mediate a British-German peace treaty that would also provide comprehensive settlement among all combatants and establish the structure for a permanent peace in Europe and elsewhere. Negotiations began on July 5, 1917 in Washington DC. Initially only Germany, France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Japan attended. Russia, still in the throes of civil war, did not send a representative. Serbia, which was specifically mentioned in the treaty preamble as the power most responsible for the Great War, no longer existed as an independent nation. In late 1917, representatives from several newly independent countries carved out of the former Russian Empire were also invited by US President Wilson to sit in. These included the Grand Duchy of Poland, the Kingdoms of Belorussia and Ukraine, and the Federated Baltic Kingdoms. Finland, which had achieved independence without German assistance, attended to ensure its new nationhood was internationally recognized.
Although the Washington Treaty as finally signed in August 6, 1918 did not live up to Woodrow Wilson’s lofty and ultimately unrealistic goal to serve as the springboard for a permanent “League of Nations” it proved to be an enduring document that:
1.Formally ended the European war and restored normal diplomatic relations throughout Europe
2.Provided formal recognition of the previous Russo-German and Franco-German treaties and armistices,
3.Provided international recognition for the new nations of central and eastern Europe and established several border adjustments
4.Provided international recognition for Finland
5.Recognized the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Serbia
6.Recognized the independence of Iraq, Syria, Jordan, and Palestine under British protection
7.Ended the war between Britain and Germany on terms that were acceptable, if not ideal, to both parties.
Recognizing that the Anglo-German naval arms race was a prime cause of the Great War, the Washington Treaty also included a separate naval reduction codicil between Britain and Germany that formally limited the size of any future German navy to one-half of the tonnage of the British navy, with specific limitations on the actual numbers of some capital ship classes for both powers.
There were, however, a number of unresolved issues or snubs that caused some participants not to sign the treaty and created the stage for future regional conflicts as well as one major war over the following four decades.
The Washington Treaty did not address the Balkans, other than to affirm Austro-Hungarian gains and legitimize the extinction of Serbia as an independent nation. As a result, nationalist movements continued to thrive in and outside of Austria-Hungary. The Dual Monarchy also found itself embroiled in border conflicts with the new German-sponsored nations of Poland and Ukraine. In addition, numerous non-signatories such as Italy and Romania had their own claims and border disputes against Austria and Hungary that the treaty did not address. This, together with increasing instability in the empire, led in 1926 to the negotiated breakup of the Dual Monarchy, with Austria eventually joining the federal structure of the German Empire as the Kingdom of Austria. The Kingdom of Hungary, with German assistance, resorted to sometimes draconian measures as it sought to maintain its control over restive Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, south Slavs, Croats, Romanians, and others within its expanded borders.
The Ottoman Empire understandably chafed at being asked to sign a document that recognized the loss of its Arabian territories. However, since the Ottoman government saw little chance of retaining these territories in the foreseeable future, it eventually signed the treaty to restore valuable economic support from Britain and France. Dissatisfaction with this treaty was so high in Turkey, however, that it eventually led to the overthrow of Sultan Mehmed IV by a military coup. Later, Mehmed was returned to the throne as a figurehead monarch under a dictatorship headed by Mustafa Kemal.
Japan did not sign the treaty, seeing the requirement to negotiate with Britain and Germany regarding the final status of its conquests in the Pacific as yet another attempt by western powers to deprive it of its well-earned conquests in war. Japan refused to negotiate with either Germany or Britain regarding this matter. This in turn antagonized the United States, which saw the Japanese Pacific conquests as a threat to its own possessions in the western Pacific, particularly the Philippines and Guam. The Americans specifically demanded that German Micronesian and Pacific islands be demilitarized or placed under international control, neither of which the Japanese would agree to. Finally, the US sought to have the Anglo-German naval reduction codicil expanded to include at least the United States and Japan, with Japan limited to the same ratio vis-à-vis the US as the German-British ratio. This was unacceptable to both Japan and Britain. As a result, despite hosting the peace conference, the US also refused to sign the Washington Treaty, and the 1931-32 Pacific War was an inevitable result.
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